Market Oriented Policies Agains Sulfur Dioxide

Chemical compound of sulfur and oxygen

For other uses, run into SO2.

Sulfur dioxide

Names
IUPAC name Sulfur dioxide
Other names Sulfurous anhydride Sulfur(Four) oxide
Identifiers
CAS Number	7446-09-5 Y
3D model (JSmol)	Interactive image
Beilstein Reference	3535237
ChEBI	CHEBI:18422 Y
ChEMBL	ChEMBL1235997 Due north
ChemSpider	1087 Y
ECHA InfoCard	100.028.359
EC Number	231-195-2
E number	E220 (preservatives)
Gmelin Reference	1443
KEGG	D05961 Y
MeSH	Sulfur+dioxide
PubChem CID	1119
RTECS number	WS4550000
UNII	0UZA3422Q4 Y
Un number	1079, 2037
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID6029672
InChI InChI=1S/O2S/c1-iii-two Y Key: RAHZWNYVWXNFOC-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y InChI=1/O2S/c1-3-two Central: RAHZWNYVWXNFOC-UHFFFAOYAT
SMILES O=South=O
Backdrop
Chemical formula	Then two
Molar mass	64.066 g mol−1
Appearance	Colorless gas
Scent	Pungent; similar to a but-struck match[1]
Density	2.6288 kg m−three [ commendation needed ]
Melting betoken	−72 °C; −98 °F; 201 K
Humid indicate	−10 °C (14 °F; 263 One thousand)
Solubility in water	94 1000/Fifty[2] forms sulfurous acid
Vapor force per unit area	237.ii kPa
Acerbity (pK a)	1.81
Basicity (pK b)	12.19
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)	−eighteen.2·10−half-dozen cm3/mol
Viscosity	12.82 μPa·s[three]
Structure
Point group	C twov
Coordination geometry	Digonal
Molecular shape	Dihedral
Dipole moment	1.62 D
Thermochemistry
Std molar entropy (Southward o 298)	248.223 J K−1 mol−1
Std enthalpy of germination (Δf H ⦵ 298)	−296.81 kJ mol−1
Hazards
GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word	Danger
Hazard statements	H314, H331 [4]
NFPA 704 (burn diamond)	three 0 0
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LCl (median concentration)	3000 ppm (mouse, thirty min) 2520 ppm (rat, i 60 minutes)[half dozen]
LCLo (everyman published)	993 ppm (rat, 20 min) 611 ppm (rat, 5 hr) 764 ppm (mouse, 20 min) grand ppm (human, 10 min) 3000 ppm (man, 5 min)[6]
NIOSH (Us health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)	TWA 5 ppm (13 mg/m3)[five]
REL (Recommended)	TWA ii ppm (5 mg/grandthree) ST five ppm (thirteen mg/k3)[five]
IDLH (Immediate danger)	100 ppm[5]
Related compounds
Related sulfur oxides	Sulfur monoxide Sulfur trioxide
Related compounds	Ozone Selenium dioxide Sulfurous acid Tellurium dioxide
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Nverify (what is Y N  ?)
Infobox references

Chemical chemical compound

Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the compound with the formula SO
₂ . Information technology is a toxic gas responsible for the odour of burnt matches. Information technology is released naturally by volcanic activity and is produced every bit a by-product of copper extraction and the called-for of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels. Sulfur dioxide has a pungent smell similar nitric acrid.^{[ citation needed ]}

Structure and bonding [edit]

Then_two is a bent molecule with C _2v symmetry point group. A valence bond theory approach because just s and p orbitals would describe the bonding in terms of resonance between two resonance structures.

2 resonance structures of sulfur dioxide

The sulfur–oxygen bond has a bail order of 1.5. At that place is support for this unproblematic approach that does not invoke d orbital participation.^[seven] In terms of electron-counting formalism, the sulfur atom has an oxidation country of +iv and a formal accuse of +1.

Occurrence [edit]

The blueish auroral glows of Io's upper atmosphere are caused past volcanic sulfur dioxide.

Sulfur dioxide is establish on Earth and exists in very small concentrations and in the atmosphere at about 1 ppm.^{[8] [nine] [ clarification needed ]}

On other planets, sulfur dioxide can be found in various concentrations, the most meaning being the temper of Venus, where it is the third-most arable atmospheric gas at 150 ppm. There, information technology reacts with water to form clouds of sulfuric acid, and is a central component of the planet's global atmospheric sulfur bike and contributes to global warming.^[x] It has been implicated as a key agent in the warming of early Mars, with estimates of concentrations in the lower atmosphere as loftier every bit 100 ppm,^[eleven] though it only exists in trace amounts. On both Venus and Mars, as on Earth, its primary source is thought to be volcanic. The temper of Io, a natural satellite of Jupiter, is 90% sulfur dioxide^[12] and trace amounts are thought to also be in the atmosphere of Jupiter.

Equally an water ice, information technology is idea to exist in abundance on the Galilean moons—as subliming ice or frost on the trailing hemisphere of Io,^[thirteen] and in the crust and mantle of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, perchance too in liquid form and readily reacting with h2o.^[14]

Production [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is primarily produced for sulfuric acid manufacture (see contact procedure). In the United States in 1979, 23.6 million metric tons (26,014,547 Usa short tons) of sulfur dioxide were used in this way, compared with 150 thousand metric tons (165,347 United states of america short tons) used for other purposes. Most sulfur dioxide is produced by the combustion of elemental sulfur. Some sulfur dioxide is also produced by roasting pyrite and other sulfide ores in air.^[15]

An experiment showing called-for of sulfur in oxygen. A flow-chamber joined to a gas washing canteen (filled with a solution of methyl orange) is being used. The product is sulfur dioxide (SO_ii) with some traces of sulfur trioxide (SO_three). The "smoke" that exits the gas washing canteen is, in fact, a sulfuric acid fog generated in the reaction.

Combustion routes [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is the product of the burning of sulfur or of burning materials that contain sulfur:

South + O₂ → And then₂, ΔH = −297 kJ/mol

To assist combustion, liquified sulfur (140–150 °C, 284-302 °F) is sprayed through an atomizing nozzle to generate fine drops of sulfur with a large surface area. The reaction is exothermic, and the combustion produces temperatures of grand–1600 °C (1832–2912 °F). The significant corporeality of heat produced is recovered by steam generation that tin can subsequently exist converted to electricity.^[15]

The combustion of hydrogen sulfide and organosulfur compounds proceeds similarly. For example:

2 H₂South + three O₂ → ii H_iiO + 2 SO₂

The roasting of sulfide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) also releases And then₂:^[16]

4 FeS₂ + 11 O₂ → 2 Iron₂O_iii + eight SO_ii

ii ZnS + 3 O₂ → ii ZnO + two And so₂

HgS + O₂ → Hg + SO₂

4 FeS + 7O_ii → ii Atomic number 26₂O_three + four SO₂

A combination of these reactions is responsible for the largest source of sulfur dioxide, volcanic eruptions. These events can release millions of tons of So_ii.

Reduction of college oxides [edit]

Sulfur dioxide can also be a byproduct in the industry of calcium silicate cement; CaSO₄ is heated with coke and sand in this procedure:

2 CaSO₄ + ii SiO₂ + C → two CaSiO₃ + 2 SO₂ + CO_two

Until the 1970s, commercial quantities of sulfuric acid and cement were produced by this procedure in Whitehaven, England. Upon being mixed with shale or marl, and roasted, the sulfate liberated sulfur dioxide gas, used in sulfuric acrid production, the reaction besides produced calcium silicate, a precursor in cement production.^[17]

On a laboratory scale, the activeness of hot concentrated sulfuric acid on copper turnings produces sulfur dioxide.

Cu + 2 H₂And so_iv → CuSO₄ + Then₂ + 2 H_twoO

From sulfites [edit]

Sulfites results past the activity of aqueous base on sulfur dioxide:

And so_two + 2 NaOH → Na_iiAnd so₃ + H₂O

The reverse reaction occurs upon acidification:

H⁺ + HSO₃ ⁻ → And so₂ + H₂O

Reactions [edit]

Featuring sulfur in the +4 oxidation state, sulfur dioxide is a reducing agent. Information technology is oxidized by halogens to requite the sulfuryl halides, such as sulfuryl chloride:

SO₂ + Cl_two → So₂Cl_two

Sulfur dioxide is the oxidising agent in the Claus procedure, which is conducted on a large scale in oil refineries. Here, sulfur dioxide is reduced by hydrogen sulfide to give elemental sulfur:

SO₂ + two H₂S → three S + ii H_iiO

The sequential oxidation of sulfur dioxide followed past its hydration is used in the production of sulfuric acrid.

2 And so₂ + ii H₂O + O₂ → 2 H₂Then₄

Laboratory reactions [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is one of the few common acidic yet reducing gases. Information technology turns moist litmus pink (being acidic), and then white (due to its bleaching effect). It may exist identified by bubbling it through a dichromate solution, turning the solution from orange to light-green (Cr³⁺ (aq)). It can also reduce ferric ions to ferrous.^[eighteen]

Sulfur dioxide tin can react with certain 1,3-dienes in a cheletropic reaction to form cyclic sulfones. This reaction is exploited on an industrial scale for the synthesis of sulfolane, which is an of import solvent in the petrochemical industry.

Sulfur dioxide can bind to metal ions equally a ligand to class metallic sulfur dioxide complexes, typically where the transition metal is in oxidation land 0 or +1. Many different bonding modes (geometries) are recognized, but in almost cases, the ligand is monodentate, attached to the metal through sulfur, which can exist either planar and pyramidal η¹.^[19] As a η¹-SO₂ (Due south-bonded planar) ligand sulfur dioxide functions every bit a Lewis base of operations using the lone pair on South. SO_ii functions equally a Lewis acids in its η^one-SO_two (S-bonded pyramidal) bonding style with metals and in its 1:one adducts with Lewis bases such equally dimethylacetamide and trimethyl amine. When bonding to Lewis bases the acid parameters of SO₂ are Eastward_A = 0.51 and Due east_A = 1.56.

Uses [edit]

The overarching, dominant employ of sulfur dioxide is in the product of sulfuric acid.^[fifteen]

Precursor to sulfuric acrid [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is an intermediate in the production of sulfuric acid, being converted to sulfur trioxide, and and so to oleum, which is made into sulfuric acrid. Sulfur dioxide for this purpose is made when sulfur combines with oxygen. The method of converting sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid is chosen the contact procedure. Several billion kilograms are produced annually for this purpose.

Equally a preservative [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is sometimes used as a preservative for stale apricots, dried figs, and other dried fruits, owing to its antimicrobial properties and ability to prevent oxidation,^[twenty] and is called E220^[21] when used in this style in Europe. As a preservative, it maintains the colorful appearance of the fruit and prevents rotting. Information technology is also added to sulfured molasses.

Sulfur dioxide was get-go used in winemaking by the Romans, when they discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels keeps them fresh and free from vinegar smell.^[22]

Information technology is still an important compound in winemaking, and is measured in parts per million (ppm) in wine. It is present even in and then-called unsulfurated vino at concentrations of up to 10 mg/50.^[23] It serves as an antibiotic and antioxidant, protecting wine from spoilage by leaner and oxidation - a phenomenon that leads to the browning of the wine and a loss of cultivar specific flavors.^{[24] [25]} Its antimicrobial action too helps minimize volatile acidity. Wines containing sulfur dioxide are typically labeled with "containing sulfites".

Sulfur dioxide exists in wine in free and spring forms, and the combinations are referred to as total And then₂. Bounden, for case to the carbonyl group of acetaldehyde, varies with the wine in question. The costless class exists in equilibrium between molecular So₂ (as a dissolved gas) and bisulfite ion, which is in turn in equilibrium with sulfite ion. These equilibria depend on the pH of the wine. Lower pH shifts the equilibrium towards molecular (gaseous) SO₂, which is the active form, while at higher pH more SO₂ is found in the inactive sulfite and bisulfite forms. The molecular And then₂ is agile equally an antimicrobial and antioxidant, and this is besides the form which may be perceived as a pungent odor at high levels. Wines with total And so_two concentrations below ten ppm do non require "contains sulfites" on the label by The states and EU laws. The upper limit of total SO₂ allowed in vino in the US is 350 ppm; in the European union information technology is 160 ppm for scarlet wines and 210 ppm for white and rosé wines. In low concentrations, So₂ is mostly undetectable in wine, simply at free And then₂ concentrations over 50 ppm, SO₂ becomes evident in the smell and taste of vino.^{[ citation needed ]}

SO₂ is also a very important compound in winery sanitation. Wineries and equipment must be kept make clean, and because bleach cannot be used in a winery due to the risk of cork taint,^[26] a mixture of And then_two, h2o, and citric acid is commonly used to clean and sanitize equipment. Ozone (O_iii) is now used extensively for sanitizing in wineries due to its efficacy, and because it does not affect the wine or most equipment.^[27]

Every bit a reducing agent [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is also a good reductant. In the presence of water, sulfur dioxide is able to decolorize substances. Specifically, it is a useful reducing bleach for papers and delicate materials such as wearing apparel. This bleaching effect commonly does not concluding very long. Oxygen in the atmosphere reoxidizes the reduced dyes, restoring the color. In municipal wastewater treatment, sulfur dioxide is used to treat chlorinated wastewater prior to release. Sulfur dioxide reduces free and combined chlorine to chloride.^[28]

Sulfur dioxide is fairly soluble in water, and past both IR and Raman spectroscopy; the hypothetical sulfurous acid, H_twoThen_iii, is not present to whatsoever extent. However, such solutions do show spectra of the hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO_iii ⁻, by reaction with water, and it is in fact the actual reducing agent present:

SO₂ + H_twoO ⇌ HSO₃ ⁻ + H⁺

Equally a fumigant [edit]

In the beginning of the 20th century, sulfur dioxide was used in Buenos Aires as a fumigant to kill rats that carried the Yersinia pestis bacterium, which causes bubonic plague. The awarding was successful, and the application of this method was extended to other areas in Due south America. In Buenos Aires, where these apparatuses were known as Sulfurozador, but later also in Rio de Janeiro, New Orleans and San Francisco, the sulfur dioxide treatment machines were brought into the streets to enable extensive disinfection campaigns, with effective results.^[29]

Biochemical and biomedical roles [edit]

Sulfur dioxide or its conjugate base bisulfite is produced biologically equally an intermediate in both sulfate-reducing organisms and in sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, as well. The role of sulfur dioxide in mammalian biology is not yet well understood.^[30] Sulfur dioxide blocks nerve signals from the pulmonary stretch receptors and abolishes the Hering–Breuer inflation reflex.

It is considered that endogenous sulfur dioxide plays a significant physiological function in regulating cardiac and blood vessel role, and aberrant or deficient sulfur dioxide metabolism can contribute to several different cardiovascular diseases, such as arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and stenocardia.^[31]

Information technology was shown that in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension due to congenital center diseases the level of homocysteine is higher and the level of endogenous sulfur dioxide is lower than in normal command children. Moreover, these biochemical parameters strongly correlated to the severity of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Authors considered homocysteine to be one of useful biochemical markers of illness severity and sulfur dioxide metabolism to be 1 of potential therapeutic targets in those patients.^[32]

Endogenous sulfur dioxide likewise has been shown to lower the proliferation rate of endothelial smooth musculus cells in blood vessels, via lowering the MAPK activity and activating adenylyl cyclase and poly peptide kinase A.^[33] Smooth muscle cell proliferation is one of of import mechanisms of hypertensive remodeling of claret vessels and their stenosis, so information technology is an important pathogenetic mechanism in arterial hypertension and atherosclerosis.

Endogenous sulfur dioxide in low concentrations causes endothelium-dependent vasodilation. In higher concentrations it causes endothelium-contained vasodilation and has a negative inotropic effect on cardiac output function, thus effectively lowering blood pressure and myocardial oxygen consumption. The vasodilating and bronchodilating effects of sulfur dioxide are mediated via ATP-dependent calcium channels and 50-type ("dihydropyridine") calcium channels. Endogenous sulfur dioxide is besides a potent antiinflammatory, antioxidant and cytoprotective agent. It lowers claret pressure level and slows hypertensive remodeling of blood vessels, peculiarly thickening of their intima. Information technology also regulates lipid metabolism.^[34]

Endogenous sulfur dioxide also diminishes myocardial impairment, caused by isoproterenol adrenergic hyperstimulation, and strengthens the myocardial antioxidant defence force reserve.^[35]

Every bit a reagent and solvent in the laboratory [edit]

Sulfur dioxide is a versatile inert solvent widely used for dissolving highly oxidizing salts. Information technology is also used occasionally as a source of the sulfonyl group in organic synthesis. Handling of aryl diazonium salts with sulfur dioxide and cuprous chloride yields the corresponding aryl sulfonyl chloride, for instance:^[36]

Every bit a upshot of its very low Lewis basicity, it is often used as a low-temperature solvent/diluent for superacids like magic acid (FSO₃H/SbF₅), assuasive for highly reactive species like tert-butyl cation to be observed spectroscopically at low temperature (though tertiary carbocations practise react with SO₂ above almost –30 °C, and fifty-fifty less reactive solvents like And so₂ClF must be used at these college temperatures).^[37]

Aspirational applications [edit]

Every bit a refrigerant [edit]

Existence easily condensed and possessing a high estrus of evaporation, sulfur dioxide is a candidate material for refrigerants. Prior to the development of chlorofluorocarbons, sulfur dioxide was used as a refrigerant in home refrigerators.

Climate engineering [edit]

Injections of sulfur dioxide in the stratosphere has been proposed in climate technology. The cooling result would be like to what has been observed afterwards the large explosive 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. However this class of geoengineering would accept uncertain regional consequences on rainfall patterns, for case in monsoon regions.^[38]

Equally an air pollutant [edit]

A collection of estimates of past and future anthropogenic global sulfur dioxide emissions. The Cofala et al. estimates are for sensitivity studies on SO₂ emission policies, CLE: Current Legislation, MFR: Maximum Feasible Reductions. RCPs (Representative Concentration Pathways) are used in CMIP5 simulations for latest (2013–2014) IPCC fifth assessment report.

Sulfur dioxide is a noticeable component in the atmosphere, particularly following volcanic eruptions.^[39] According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),^[40] the amount of sulfur dioxide released in the U.S. per year was:

Yr	And so2
1970	31,161,000 short tons (28.3 Mt)
1980	25,905,000 brusk tons (23.5 Mt)
1990	23,678,000 short tons (21.5 Mt)
1996	eighteen,859,000 short tons (17.1 Mt)
1997	xix,363,000 short tons (17.six Mt)
1998	xix,491,000 brusque tons (17.7 Mt)
1999	eighteen,867,000 short tons (17.one Mt)

Sulfur dioxide is a major air pollutant and has significant impacts upon homo wellness.^[41] In addition, the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere can influence the habitat suitability for plant communities, as well as animal life.^[42] Sulfur dioxide emissions are a precursor to acid rain and atmospheric particulates. Due largely to the US EPA's Acid Rain Program, the U.S. has had a 33% decrease in emissions between 1983 and 2002. This comeback resulted in office from flue-gas desulfurization, a technology that enables SO_ii to be chemically bound in power plants burning sulfur-containing coal or oil. In particular, calcium oxide (lime) reacts with sulfur dioxide to grade calcium sulfite:

CaO + So₂ → CaSO₃

Aerobic oxidation of the CaSO₃ gives CaSO₄, anhydrite. Most gypsum sold in Europe comes from flue-gas desulfurization.

To control sulfur emissions, dozens of methods with relatively loftier efficiencies take been adult for plumbing fixtures of coal-fired power plants.^[43]

Sulfur tin can be removed from coal during burning by using limestone as a bed material in fluidized bed combustion.^[44]

Sulfur tin also exist removed from fuels earlier burning, preventing germination of SO₂ when the fuel is burnt. The Claus process is used in refineries to produce sulfur as a byproduct. The Stretford procedure has also been used to remove sulfur from fuel. Redox processes using atomic number 26 oxides tin can besides exist used, for example, Lo-Cat^[45] or Sulferox.^[46]

An assay plant that 18 coal-fired power stations in the western Balkans emitted two-and-half times more sulphur dioxide than all 221 coal plants in the Eu combined.^[47]

Fuel additives such as calcium additives and magnesium carboxylate may be used in marine engines to lower the emission of sulfur dioxide gases into the temper.^[48]

Equally of 2006, People's republic of china was the world's largest sulfur dioxide polluter, with 2005 emissions estimated to be 25,490,000 short tons (23.i Mt). This amount represents a 27% increment since 2000, and is roughly comparable with U.S. emissions in 1980.^[49]

• 

  A sulfur dioxide plumage from Halemaʻumaʻu, which glows at nighttime

• 

  Sulfur dioxide in the globe on April 15, 2017. Note that sulfur dioxide moves through the temper with prevailing winds and thus local sulfur dioxide distributions vary twenty-four hours to mean solar day with weather patterns and seasonality.

Safety [edit]

Inhalation [edit]

Incidental exposure to sulfur dioxide is routine, e.g. the smoke from matches, coal, and sulfur-containing fuels.

Sulfur dioxide is mildly toxic and can be hazardous in loftier concentrations.^[50] Long-term exposure to low concentrations is also problematic. A 2011 systematic review ended that exposure to sulfur dioxide is associated with preterm birth.^[51]

U.South. regulations [edit]

In 2008, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists reduced the short-term exposure limit to 0.25 parts per million (ppm). In the Usa, the OSHA set the PEL at 5 ppm (13 mg/g³) time-weighted average. Besides in the The states, NIOSH ready the IDLH at 100 ppm.^[52] In 2010, the EPA "revised the chief And so₂ NAAQS past establishing a new one-hour standard at a level of 75 parts per billion (ppb). EPA revoked the two existing primary standards because they would not provide additional public health protection given a one-60 minutes standard at 75 ppb."^[41]

Ingestion [edit]

In the United States, the Center for Science in the Public Involvement lists the two nutrient preservatives, sulfur dioxide and sodium bisulfite, as being safety for human consumption except for sure asthmatic individuals who may be sensitive to them, especially in big amounts.^[53] Symptoms of sensitivity to sulfiting agents, including sulfur dioxide, manifest as potentially life-threatening trouble breathing within minutes of ingestion.^[54] Sulphites may besides cause symptoms in non-asthmatic individuals, namely dermatitis, urticaria, flushing, hypotension, abdominal pain and diarrhea, and even life-threatening anaphylaxis.^[55]

Encounter also [edit]

• Bunker fuel
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards
• Sulfur trioxide
• Sulfur–iodine bike

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

• Global map of sulfur dioxide distribution
• Usa Ecology Protection Agency Sulfur Dioxide page
• International Chemic Prophylactic Card 0074
• IARC Monographs. "Sulfur Dioxide and some Sulfites, Bisulfites and Metabisulfites". vol. 54. 1992. p. 131.
• NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
• CDC – Sulfure Dioxide – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
• Sulfur Dioxide, Molecule of the Month

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide

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